Scripture Forgeries

An Investigating in the Bible's Forged Authors

Oct 19, 2024

As I explored the depths of biblical authorship, I uncovered a fascinating yet unsettling reality: many books traditionally attributed to revered figures are, in fact, products of pseudepigraphy - texts written under false names. While this practice was common in the ancient world, it raises significant questions about the authenticity and authority of these sacred writings. For those critically analysing their religious traditions, understanding these forgeries is crucial to appreciating the complex history of biblical literature.

The Book of Daniel

Traditionally ascribed to Daniel, a prophet supposedly living during the Babylonian exile, scholars now widely date its composition to the 2nd century BCE, during the Maccabean Revolt. This dating coincides with the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, a Seleucid king notorious for persecuting the Jewish people. The book’s apocalyptic visions, which seem to predict the rise and fall of empires, were likely written during this time of persecution to offer hope to the Jewish population. The writing employs a technique known as vaticinium ex eventu - a form of prophecy where past events are presented as predictions. Common in ancient apocalyptic literature, this method would have resonated with readers of the time, as it framed recent historical events as divine prophecy. This suggests the author was describing events familiar to a 2nd-century audience, not foretelling them from the 6th century BCE.

Further evidence for this later date is found in the linguistic composition of the text, written in both Hebrew and Aramaic. The specific dialect of Aramaic used reflects a form common in the 2nd century BCE, rather than the 6th century, when the narrative is set. Additionally, the text contains historical inaccuracies regarding the Babylonian and Persian periods. For example, the book misidentifies Belshazzar as the king of Babylon, when historical records show he was actually the son of King Nabonidus and served only as regent. The portrayal of Persian administrative structures contains errors, such as inaccurate references to Persian officials and titles, further supporting the theory that the book was written centuries after the events it describes.

The Book of Ecclesiastes

Ecclesiastes, traditionally attributed to King Solomon, is now widely regarded by scholars as a work from the post-exilic period, likely between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE. The text’s advanced Hebrew language and philosophical depth suggest a later stage of Hebrew literary development, long after Solomon’s reign. Its existential musings on the meaninglessness of human endeavours, the nature of wisdom, and life’s impermanence align more closely with post-exilic Jewish thought, which had begun to absorb influences from Greek philosophy and other intellectual movements of the time. This shift in worldview is especially evident in Ecclesiastes' skepticism of traditional religious answers and its emphasis on the uncertainty of life, a theme that would have resonated with a community rebuilding its identity after exile.

Linguistically, the Hebrew of Ecclesiastes shows a level of sophistication that contrasts with the biblical texts attributed to earlier periods. The vocabulary, idiomatic expressions, and even certain grammatical structures are consistent with post-exilic literature, rather than the time of Solomon, reinforcing the idea that the book was composed much later. Its unique combination of philosophical reflection and literary style marks it as a product of a more cosmopolitan and philosophically diverse era in Jewish history.

The Book of Isaiah

The Book of Isaiah is traditionally divided into three distinct sections that reflect different historical periods and theological concerns:

First Isaiah (Chapters 1-39): Attributed to the historical prophet Isaiah, who lived in the 8th century BCE. This section addresses the immediate political and military threats facing the Kingdom of Judah, particularly the looming Assyrian invasion.
Second Isaiah (Chapters 40-55): Written during the Babylonian exile, more than a century after the original Isaiah, this section speaks to the exiled Jewish community. Its message focuses on hope and redemption, predicting the eventual return from Babylon and the restoration of Jerusalem.
Third Isaiah (Chapters 56-66): Composed after the return from exile, this part addresses the challenges of rebuilding and reforming the Jewish community. It may have been written by followers of Isaiah or later prophets who were influenced by his teachings.

The division into these three sections reflects the evolving historical and theological contexts of the book’s various authors. First Isaiah is preoccupied with the Assyrian threat and contains the sharp warnings and prophecies of an 8th-century prophet, while Second and Third Isaiah deal with the exile and post-exilic restoration. Differences in style, vocabulary, and theological content between these sections strongly support the theory of multiple authorship. Second and Third Isaiah, in particular, showcase a more refined literary style and philosophical depth that align with post-exilic Jewish literature, further distancing them from the earlier, more direct tone of First Isaiah.

The Book of Deuteronomy

Similarly, Deuteronomy, long attributed to Moses, is now widely believed by scholars to have been written during the 7th century BCE, likely during the reign of King Josiah as part of a broader religious reform movement. The book’s content aligns with Josiah’s efforts to centralize worship in Jerusalem and reinforce the covenant with Yahweh. Its laws and exhortations reflect the religious and political concerns of this reform period, rather than those of the Mosaic era. Deuteronomy’s style and language are consistent with other 7th-century BCE texts, marking it as part of a later stage of Hebrew literary development, much like the later sections of Isaiah.

The Book of Zechariah

The Book of Zechariah is divided into two distinct parts, each reflecting different historical contexts and possibly different authors:

First Zechariah (Chapters 1-8): Likely written by the historical prophet Zechariah in the 6th century BCE, this section is set during the early post-exilic period, following the return of the Jewish people from Babylon. Its primary focus is the restoration of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple, emphasising hope and divine encouragement for the returning exiles. Zechariah’s visions in these chapters are filled with symbolic imagery aimed at reassuring the community of God’s continued presence and favour during the challenging task of reconstruction.
Second Zechariah (Chapters 9-14): Many scholars believe that this section was composed by one or more anonymous authors in the 4th or 3rd century BCE, long after the time of the historical Zechariah. The content of these chapters shifts away from immediate post-exilic concerns and instead introduces more apocalyptic and messianic themes, looking forward to a future time of divine intervention. The style and language of Second Zechariah differ noticeably from those of the earlier chapters, exhibiting a more developed literary technique and focusing on the distant future rather than the immediate restoration of Jerusalem.

This division reflects the evolving concerns of the Jewish community over time. While First Zechariah deals with the practicalities of rebuilding and re-establishing religious practices in the present, Second Zechariah expresses broader theological and eschatological ideas. The differences in language, style, and thematic focus provide strong evidence that the latter chapters were composed in a later period, by authors reflecting the concerns of a community grappling with messianic expectations and the hope for ultimate redemption.

The New Testament

Several books in the New Testament have faced significant debate regarding their authenticity, as scholars continue to examine their origins and authorship:

2 Thessalonians: Although traditionally attributed to Paul, some scholars argue that this letter may have been written by a later author imitating Paul’s style and teachings. Differences in language, tone, and theological emphasis, especially compared to the undisputed Pauline letters like 1 Thessalonians, have led to doubts about its authenticity. The letter’s focus on eschatology and a more structured view of the end times diverges from Paul’s earlier, more urgent apocalyptic teachings, suggesting a different authorial hand.
Colossians and Ephesians: These two letters are often viewed as products of a later theological development within the early church. Though they are attributed to Paul, the style and themes—such as the emphasis on Christ’s cosmic role and the unity of the church—are considered more reflective of the concerns of a second-generation Christian community. Some scholars believe they were written by Paul’s followers to address emerging issues, possibly drawing on his teachings to lend authority to their message.
1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus (Pastoral Epistles): These letters are typically considered pseudonymous, written by later authors under Paul’s name to deal with specific concerns in the early church. The pastoral letters focus heavily on church organization, leadership roles, and the fight against false teachings, reflecting issues that arose after Paul’s lifetime. The language and themes differ noticeably from Paul’s undisputed letters, with a more structured and institutional view of the church, which aligns with the needs of a developing Christian community.
2 Peter: This epistle is widely regarded as pseudonymous, with strong evidence pointing to a much later date of composition. Its literary style, along with its references to events and writings that postdate Peter’s lifetime, suggest that it was written by a later Christian author. The letter’s emphasis on combating false teachings and its apocalyptic tone align more with the concerns of a later period in early Christian history.
Jude: Although Jude is less frequently discussed, its authenticity has also been questioned due to its late literary style and references. The epistle’s close resemblance to 2 Peter, as well as its use of extrabiblical sources like the Book of Enoch, suggests that it may have been written by an author other than the traditional Jude, brother of Jesus.

In Conclusion

These debates reflect broader issues within early Christianity, particularly the development of doctrine and church organization. Forgery and pseudepigraphy were common tools employed to address contemporary concerns by invoking the authority of earlier figures. Differences in language, style, and theological content between these disputed texts and those traditionally accepted as authentic further support the argument for later authorship. For instance, the vocabulary and theological concepts in the Pastoral Epistles differ markedly from those found in the undisputed Pauline letters, signalling a shift in the concerns of the early Christian community.

The study of biblical forgeries uncovers a complex web of literary, historical, and theological motivations behind these ancient texts. For skeptics and humanists, this scholarship is key to understanding the evolution of religious literature and its ongoing influence on contemporary beliefs. Recognizing that many biblical books were not written by their traditionally claimed authors, but were instead products of later attribution or deliberate pseudepigraphy, provides a clearer perspective on the origins and development of religious traditions. This knowledge encourages a more critical engagement with religious texts, challenging their divine claims and historical reliability. Ultimately, it prompts readers to question the authenticity of what has long been regarded as sacred and authoritative, fostering a more nuanced understanding of the Bible’s place in history and faith.

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